Advent of Europeans and Establishment of British Rule
The arrival of Europeans in India began with the Portuguese in 1498, followed by the Dutch, French, and English. The English East India Company gradually emerged as the dominant power. The Battle of Plassey (1757) marked the beginning of British political control in India, where Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah. The Battle of Buxar (1764) further strengthened British power by granting the Diwani rights (revenue collection) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
The British adopted various expansionist policies. Subsidiary Alliance, introduced by Lord Wellesley, forced Indian rulers to accept British troops and control over foreign affairs. The Doctrine of Lapse, introduced by Lord Dalhousie, allowed annexation of states without a natural heir. Through wars like the Anglo-Mysore Wars, Anglo-Maratha Wars, and Anglo-Sikh Wars, the British established paramountcy over India.
Administrative and Economic Policies
The British administration was centralized and bureaucratic. The Regulating Act of 1773 and Pitt’s India Act of 1784 aimed to regulate Company affairs. The Charter Acts progressively increased British control and opened India to missionaries and free trade.
Revenue systems deeply affected Indian agriculture:
Permanent Settlement (1793) in Bengal created zamindars as landlords.
Ryotwari System in Madras and Bombay dealt directly with peasants.
Mahalwari System in North India collected revenue from villages.
British economic policies led to deindustrialization, decline of handicrafts, commercialization of agriculture, and drain of wealth. India became a supplier of raw materials and a market for British goods. Dadabhai Naoroji’s Drain Theory highlighted economic exploitation.
Railways, telegraph, and postal systems were introduced, primarily to serve colonial interests but later helped national integration.
Socio-Religious Reform Movements
The 19th century witnessed several reform movements aimed at social and religious transformation. Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj to promote monotheism and oppose social evils like sati and child marriage. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar advocated widow remarriage.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded Arya Samaj to promote Vedic principles. Swami Vivekananda, through Ramakrishna Mission, emphasized service and spiritual upliftment. In western India, Jyotiba Phule worked for lower-caste upliftment. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Aligarh Movement for Muslim education.
These movements contributed to social awakening and modernization, laying foundations for nationalism.
Revolt of 1857
The Revolt of 1857 was the first major uprising against British rule. Immediate cause was the introduction of Enfield rifles with greased cartridges offensive to both Hindus and Muslims. Deeper causes included political annexations, economic exploitation, military grievances, and social reforms perceived as interference.
The revolt began in Meerut and spread to Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, and other areas. Leaders included Bahadur Shah Zafar, Rani Lakshmibai, Tantia Tope, Nana Sahib, and Kunwar Singh.
Though suppressed by 1858, the revolt marked the end of Company rule. The Government of India Act 1858 transferred power to the British Crown. It also led to reorganization of the army and cautious policies towards princes and religious matters.
Growth of Nationalism
The late 19th century saw the rise of political consciousness. The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume. Early leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Pherozeshah Mehta were moderates. They used constitutional methods such as petitions and resolutions.
The partition of Bengal in 1905 by Lord Curzon triggered the Swadeshi and Boycott movements. Extremist leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal advocated assertive nationalism.
The Muslim League was formed in 1906 to represent Muslim interests. The Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) introduced separate electorates, sowing seeds of communal division.
Gandhian Era (1915–1947)
Mahatma Gandhi transformed the freedom struggle into a mass movement. His methods were based on non-violence (Ahimsa) and truth (Satyagraha).
1. Champaran Satyagraha (1917) – indigo farmers’ issue.
2. Kheda Satyagraha (1918) – tax relief for peasants.
3. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918).
The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) was launched after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and Khilafat issue. It involved boycott of foreign goods, schools, and courts. It was withdrawn after the Chauri Chaura incident.
The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34) began with the Dandi March against salt tax. It saw widespread participation of women and peasants. The Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy and federal provisions.
The Quit India Movement (1942) was launched during World War II demanding immediate independence. Though leaders were arrested, it demonstrated strong public support for freedom.
Revolutionary Activities
Revolutionary groups operated alongside constitutional and Gandhian methods. Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, and others formed the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. Subhas Chandra Bose formed the Indian National Army (INA) with Japanese support, emphasizing armed struggle.
Constitutional Developments
Key constitutional reforms included:
Indian Councils Act 1861 and 1892 – limited Indian participation.
Morley-Minto Reforms 1909 – separate electorates.
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms 1919 – dyarchy in provinces.
Government of India Act 1935 – provincial autonomy and federal structure.
The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) proposed a federal structure but failed due to differences between Congress and Muslim League.
Partition and Independence
Communal tensions increased in the 1940s. The demand for Pakistan under Muhammad Ali Jinnah intensified. The Mountbatten Plan (1947) led to partition of India and creation of Pakistan. India gained independence on 15 August 1947 under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
Partition caused massive communal violence and migration but marked the end of colonial rule.
Economic and Social Impact
Modern Indian History witnessed transformation in society. English education created a new middle class. Press and literature fostered political awareness. Women participated actively in movements. Peasant and tribal movements like Santhal Rebellion, Indigo Revolt, and Moplah Rebellion reflected grassroots resistance.
Conclusion
Modern Indian History represents the transition from colonial subjugation to national independence. British policies reshaped India’s economy and society, often exploitatively, but also inadvertently laid foundations for modern institutions. Socio-religious reform movements created intellectual awakening. The national movement evolved from moderate constitutional demands to mass civil disobedience under Gandhi, and finally to independence through combined efforts of political negotiation, mass struggle, and global circumstances.
For UPSC preparation, emphasis should be placed on understanding causes and consequences, ideological differences within the freedom struggle, constitutional developments, economic critique of colonialism, and the role of various social groups. Analytical approach and chronological clarity are essential for Prelims and Mains examination.
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