Modern Indian History is a crucial component of the UPSC Civil Services Examination, covering the period from the decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century to Indian Independence in 1947. This phase witnessed the expansion of British rule, socio-religious reform movements, economic transformation, the rise of nationalism, and the freedom struggle. Advent of Europeans and Establishment of British Rule The arrival of Europeans in India began with the Portuguese in 1498, followed by the Dutch, French, and English. The English East India Company gradually emerged as the dominant power. The Battle of Plassey (1757) marked the beginning of British political control in India, where Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah. The Battle of Buxar (1764) further strengthened British power by granting the Diwani rights (revenue collection) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The British adopted various expansionist policies. Subsidiary Alliance, introduced by Lord Wellesley, forced Indian...